Unit 21: The Dominate
Contents and layout ©1999 Joseph J. Hughes, Ph.D.
Revised 09 November 2000
salus generis humani Constantinople
alimenta- diocese
co-option praefecture
dominus et deus Edict on Prices
Tetrarchy foederati
I. Review of previous lectures
A. The "Good Emperors"
1. domestic policy: -salus- -generis- -humani-
a. public welfare: -alimenta-, -congiaria-
b. Roman empire as a commonwealth of all its subjects
1). transcended what was merely Roman or Latin
2). included all races and languages
c. emperor is there to serve the people
2. foreign/military policy
a. expansionist under Trajan
b. others maintained peace on the borders
c. judicious balance between military and social programs
3. succession
a. co-option provided for smooth transfer of power
b. pattern ruined by choice of Commodus
B. House of Severus
1. Empire in chaos at accession of Sept. Severus
a. five years of civil war
b. dangerous enemies on the border
2. domestic policy: ruthless consolidation of power
a. little pretense of common good
b. personal loyalty to Emperor the only criterion
c. most important thing is keeping the army happy
1). tax the civilians
2). pay the army copiously
3. foreign/military policy
a. preserve the Severans' power
b. stave off the Parthians and the Germans on the Danube
4. succession
a. hereditary
b. worked for a while
1). male heirs generally ineffectual
2). capable mothers and regents
C. Crisis of the Third Century
1. succession goes haywire
a. usually dictated by individual armies
b. nobody hangs on for very long
2. military disasters
a. civil wars
1). secessions of large parts of Empire
2). revolts, etc.
b. wars on borders
1). Parthians and (after 226) Persians
2). Goths on the Danube frontier
3). Alemanni, Franks on Rhine frontier
3. economic chaos
a. inflation: gov't would not take its own money
b. cost of government and army was staggering
c. -annona-: taxes in kind were unfair
4. social malaise
a. faith in justice evaporating
b. some class struggle; internal dissension
c. aided in spread of Christianity
II. Diocletian (284-385)
A. Proclaimed emperor by his troops
1. poorly educated
2. possessed of great common sense
B. Realized he could not run the empire by himself
1. problems with Germanic tribes
2. taxpayers in revolt
3. piracy
4. invasions on the Danube frontier
C. Diocletian's administrative reforms: "Tetrarchy"
1. two districts of the Empire
a. East and West
b. divided by Adriatic sea
c. each had its own Augustus
2. succession in the Tetrarchy
a. each Augustus appoints a junior colleague
1). called a "Caesar"
2). responsible for one section of Empire
b. Each Caesar appoints new junior colleague upon accession
3. operation of Tetrarchy
a. all legislation put forth in name of four emperors
b. location of emperors
1). Western Empire
a). Augustus Maximian: Milan (Mediolanum)
b). Caesar Constantius: Trier (Aug. Trevirorum)
2). Eastern Empire
a). Augustus Diocletian: Nicomedia
b). Caesar Galerius: Salonika (Thessalonika)
c. provinces divided from 50 into 100
1). military and civilian govt. kept separate
2). too much power will not come to one man
d. massive bureaucracies fostered and increased
D. "Cult of personality"
1. trappings of Republic fall by the wayside
2. oriental ritual begins to be adopted
a. reinforce Domitian's aura of power
1). more inscrutable
2). less accessible
b. took up title of "dominus et deus"
3. precursor of Byzantine court ritual
a. elaborate system of officials
b. not conducive to harmonious sharing of power
III. Structure of the Dominate: the new totalitarianism
A. The emperor is now a despot
1. official titles
a. Augustus
b. Dominus et Deus
c. many others
2. his rule is absolute
a. bound by no laws or precedents
b. all authority vested in Emperor
3. equivalent to Oriental potentate
a. elaborate rituals installed
b. precursor of trappings of Western monarchy
4. -mos- -maiorum- completely thrown over
a. no pretense of common bonds between ruler and subject
b. emperor is a figure of awe
B. civil administration streamlined
1. number of provinces increased to 100
a. subdivision of existing provinces
b. Italy divided into two provinces
2. powers of governor altered
a. military functions taken away
b. larger professional civil service staff
3. new administrative unit: "diocese"
a. 13 dioceses
b. administered by a "vicar"
4. newer administrative unit: "praefecture"
a. instituted by Constantine
b. run by Praetorian Prefects
5. massive bureaucracy created
a. originally established by Clavdivs in 1st cent. AD
b. 30,000-40,000 civil servants
1). elaborately classified
2). take the place of -decurio- class
c. very expensive to maintain
C. Army under the Dominate
1. larger than the army of the principate
2. paid by the Emperor
a. part in cash, part in -annona-
b. bonus of cash, land, and cattle upon retirement
3. arrangement of the army
a. frontier troops: -limitanei-
b. field army within empire: -comitatus-
c. Praetorian Guard replaced by -scholae-
4. admixture of Germans
a. no real attempt to Romanize the Germans
1). Romans considered them too barbaric
2). bad career move
b. heavily represented in army
1). border troops (-limitanei-)
2). also attained high positions in army
D. Economy
1. effects of civil wars of 3d cent AD
a. tens of thousands of men killed
b. cities, farms destroyed
c. local units of government rendered powerless
d. initiative often stamped out
2. desperation reigns
a. inflation running rampant
1). result of devaluation of currency
2). small farmers and tradesmen unable to make it
b. taxation remains problematic
1). large amounts of money needed for defense
2). methods of collecting tax still inefficient
3). people unable to pay cash
3. Diocletian's attempt to rectify situation
a. Edict on Prices (301 AD)
1). froze prices, wages
2). severe penalties prescribed
3). totally ineffective
a). state did not control means of production
b). state did not control consumption
b. reorganized taxation
c. tried to stabilize the currency
d. made occupations hereditary
IV. Society under the Dominate
A. class boundaries solidified
1. social mobility greatly curtailed
a. -honestiores- and -humiliores- become legally stratified
b. cuts off new blood and impetus for growth
c. idea of Empire as commonwealth dead and gone
2. ambivalent attitude toward Germans
a. considered unworthy of Roman tradition
1). did not speak Latin
2). too wild to take naturally to Roman ideals
b. end of Rome's practice of assimilating other peoples
1). had benefitted Rome up to this point
2). reached peak during time of Good Emperors
c. allowed only to serve in the army
1). mixed in with legions or as border troops
2). -foederati-: lived under their own rule
3. changes in the army
a. massive and considered very important
b. more barbarians than Roman citizens
1). better fighters in all likelihood
2). less likely to be loyal
B. social structure
1. lower class
a. burdens of government fall heavily
1). burden of taxation fell upon them
2). liable to service in armies
3). population is decreasing
b. legal inequities
1). -humiliores- subject to a number of punishments
2). legal status equal to that of slaves
3). -patrocinium- system
c. depopulation in the country
1). depredations of war
2). less incentive to reproduce
d. woes of the urban poor
1). depredations of war
2). handouts become farther and fewer between
2. problems of middle class
a. once the strong backbone of urban culture
b. -decuriones- become -curiales-
1). become glorified imperial agents
2). expected to make up the diff from their pockets
3). start to back out of duties
c. slightly better off in Eastern half of empire
3. problems of upper class
a. senatorial class still flourishing
b. subject to special duties and exemptions
d. tended to work against the government
C. economic conditions
1. government was a tremendous burden
a. expensive to maintain an army
b. expensive to maintain a bureaucracy
2. wealthy landholders become further entrenched
a. large landholdings become autonomou
b. central government loses authority
3. breakdown of central government created chaos
V. New Improved Civil Wars
A. Effect of the Tetrarchy
1. piracy eliminated
2. comparative peace on the borders
3. tax problems eased somewhat
B. Failure of the Tetrarchy
1. too many emperors and not enough real power
2. succession a problem
1). no orderly method for appointing junior emperors
2). ambition won the day
3. East bound to take on West
4. military and bureaucracy increase too much
C. Civil War
1. Constantine fights his way into Tetrarchy 306 BC
2. were supposedly on friendly terms
a. Licinius married to Constantine's sister
b. collaborated on Edict of Milan 313
1). Constantine was instigator
2). made Christianity official state religion
3. open warfare breaks out 314
4. bloodbath at Chrysopolis 324
a. huge numbers of men involved
b. Licinius and his Caesar put to death
VI. Constantine (324-337)
A. Wanted to keep the power in his family
1. son Crispus got too anxious
2. divided title to empire between three surviving sons
B. Constantine and Christianity
1. persecution of Christians continues under Diocletian
a. originally rather tolerant
b. 303: books to be burned, temples destroyed
c. still no martyrdom involved
2. Edict of Milan 313
a. ends the persecution of Christianity
b. now on equal footing with paganism
c. becomes official religion in 325
3. polarization of Christianity: one example
a. Arius: Christ inferior to God the Father
1). Christ is a Kmart god
2). Christ not of the same substance (homoiousios)
b. orthodox view: Christ is the same as God
4. Edict of Nicaea 325
a. Constantine imposes his authority upon bishops
1). Christian church -de- -facto- the official religion
2). church subordinate to state
b. Arius' views condemned
1). Christ is "consubstantial" (homoousios)
2). really solved nothing
5. Arian "heresy" lasted much longer
a. West remains orthodox
b. East tends to remain Arian
C. Constantinople
1. moved the capital of Empire from Rome to Constantinople
a. "City of Constantine", mod. Istanbul
b. formerly famous and ancient Greek city of Byzantium
c. ideal from a strategic standpoint
1). commands Bosporus
2). close to both Danube and Persian fronts
2. concieved of Constantinople as the "New Rome"
a. Constantinople becomes capital on May 11, 330 AD
b. intended as cultural capital of Empire
1). remodeled and expanded upon
2). plenty of art "relocated" here
c. refounded as a Christian city
d. center of Roman Empire shifts east
1). Greek eventually supplants Latin as official language
2). Byz. empire remains after Latin-speaking West crumbles
3. foreign policy
a. nothing spectacular
b. concentrated on two internal objectives
1). maintaining succession
2). promoting Christianity in empire
c. maintain peace on the borders
D. Constantine's successors
1. all but his three sons killed off at his death
2. Constantius II winds up supreme
a. more civil wars ensue
b. succeeded by Julian the Apostate
Return to Table of Contents
Return to LLT 326 Home Page