Unit 08: Fall of the Roman Republic
Contents and layout ©1999 Joseph J. Hughes, Ph.D.
Revised 09 November 2000
warlord phenomenon Cassius (83-42)
Marius Sullan Constitution (81)
Sulla Catiline's Conspiracy (63)
proscriptions First Triumvirate (60)
Pompey (106-48) Gallic Wars (58-51)
Caesar (103-44) Civil War (49-45 BC)
Crassus (113-53) Octavius
Cato of Utica (95-46) Antony
Cicero (106-43) Lepidus
Brutus (83-42) Social Wars (90-88)
I. Decline of the Republic: causes and characters
A. causes
1. tensions between classes and pressure groups
a. nobiles/senators
b. equestrians
c. Romans/Italians
1). remember: not synonymous
2). actually, rather a mess
2. fickleness of urban mob
a. many former members of former small farmer class
b. can manipulate politicians in -contio-
c. also serve in army
3. economic inequities
a. rich get richer
b. latifundia add to urban mob
1). no more small farmer class
2). no room for those pushed out
4. personal ambition
a. formerly contained within public interest
b. now results in "warlords" (vide infra)
c. enormous stakes at hand
d. enormous costs
1). victorious army becomes clientela
2). -clientelae- disruptive to political process
5. massive upsurge in national wealth
a. lasts throughout first half of 2nd cent BC
b. fizzles out in second half
6. where is the mos maiorum?
B. characters
1. populares
a. Cn. Pompeius Magnus (106-48 BC)
b. C. Julius Caesar (103-44 BC)
c. M. Licinius Crassus Dives (113?-53 BC)
2. optimates
a. M. Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC)
b. M. Porcius Cato Uticensis (95-46 BC), great-grandson of ol' Cato
3. up-and-coming young men
a. M. Junius Brutus (85-42 BC)
b. C. Cassius Longinus (83?-42 BC)
II. Attempts to fix the problem
A. popularis approach:
1. Meet the Gracchi
a. two brothers of blue patrician blood
1). Tiberius Gracchus (tribune 133 BC)
2). Gaius Gracchus (tribune 123, 122 BC)
b. mother played large role in education
1). very mos maiorum
2). daughter of Scipio Africanus
c. put their programs forward from the office of tribune
2. Solution: colonize deserving poor folks and give all Italian allies citizenship
a. make them back into small farmers
b. replenish the military pool
c. help settle all the lands we have won
3. Problems with their solution
a. poor folks are by nature undeserving according to the mos maiorum
b. these people would all wind up as clients of the Gracchi
c. much better to keep the ager publicus as latifundia.
B. The upshot
1. Gracchi make some headway in establishing colonies
a. some nobiles supported them
b. actually a good idea
2. Gracchi make no headway in getting citizenship
a. probably also a good idea
1). Italians fought in Romans' wars
2). Italians paid Roman taxes
b. defeated by mos maiorum
3. Tiberius offed by optimate Scipio Nasica on the Capitol 133 BC.
a. only some of the culprits punished
b. younger brother Gaius picks up the torch
4. Gaius makes more progress, but offed by consul Opimius 122 BC.
a. supporters stamped out too
b. problems still remain
III. Social Wars (90-88 BC)
A. citizenship issue remains thorny
1. Romans unwilling to grant Italians full citizenship
a. mos maiorum wins out over positive change in the beginning
b. very unfortunate for the SPQR
2. State of "Italia" created
a. modeled on Roman state; all that's missing is Rome
b. Samnites take the lead in the confederation
B. first full-blown civil war goes both ways
1. Romans actually win the war against Italians
2. Imminent war with Mithradates forestalls successful conclusion
C. resolution
1. all Italy south of R. Rubicon enfranchised
2. rebellious individuals duly punished
3. Romans dragged feet on enrolling new citizens
a. feared that they would be overwhelmed
b. fears were correct
4. won the war but lost the peace
a. all Italians are now Roman citizens
b. first of a series of stupid civil wars
IV. Marius vs. Sulla (see Colleen Mc Cullough's novels)
A. The principal dramatis personae
1. Gaius Marius
a. novus homo from Arpinum
1). plenty rich and important back home
2). this means nothing at Rome
b. accomplished soldier
1). rises up through cursus
2). still locked out of top spot
c. holds consulship six times between 108 and 100 BC
1). needed him to defeat Numidia, Germans
2). violation of mos maiorum , bad precedent
d. invents the professional Roman army
1). self-paid amateurs up to this point
2). small farmers all but gone thanx to war and latifundia
3). takes anyone physically fit regardless of inablility to pay
4). they're letting anybody in!
e. invents "warlord phenomenon"
1). successful general becomes patron to his soldiers
2). wants to dish out land to them in his own name
3). Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus had tried this sort of thing
4). lot harder to murder Marius in the Forum
2. Lucius Cornelius Sulla
a. blueblooded patrician
1). lots of consular ancestors from way back
2). utterly impoverished
b. early service under Marius
1). loyal subordinate
2). rounds up Jugurtha
c. wins a chance at a better political career in the Social War
1). gets elected consul for 88
2). does not want it screwed up
B. Mithradatic war
1. Mithradates VI king of Pontus: tenacious enemy
a. imperial ambitions, messing around in East for some time
b. never really snuffed out until Pompey gets him in 63 BC
2. Rome declares war 88 BC
a. Senate appoints Sulla as supreme commander
b. Assembly of Plebs appoints Marius
c. Sulla seizes command
1). marches on Rome with 35,000 vets of Social War
2). Marius outlawed, flees to Africa
3. Sulla beats Mithradates by 85 BC
C. popularis reign of terror in Rome 88-83 BC
1. Marius elected to seventh consulship
a. installs popularis regime
b. institutes round of -proscriptions-
2. dies and replaced by C. Cinna
D. Sulla returns after Marius' death
1. wins bloody civil war in Italy by 82 BC
2. installs himself as dictator
a. rewards his veterans
b. installs his constitution
E. the Sullan Constitution
1. aims of "Sullan constitution" geared towards -optimates-
a. prevent rise of the likes of Marius
b. keeps populus and populares in their place
2. changes in powers of Senate
a. raised from 300 to 600 members
b. given veto power over Council of the Plebeians
3. cursus honorum
a. illegal to hold consecutive consulships
b. power of veto taken from tribunes
c. 8 praetors, 20 quaestors
V. Roman history down to conspiracy of Catiline
A. consulship of Pompey and Crassus (70 BC) use this method of dating to set up 59 BC
1. Pompey
a. came to prominence under the dictatorship of Sulla
1). commanded troops in Civil War
2). helped stamp out Sertorius in Spain
b. not even old enough to be elected consul
c. helped Crassus put down Spartacus revolt 71 BC
2. Crassus
a. made his fortune under the dictatorship of Sulla
b. put down Spartacus revolt 71 BC
c. eligible to be elected consul
3. Pompey and Crassus make up, serve as consuls 70 BC
a. a number of reforms
1). reinstituted the office of censor
2). reinstituted tribunes' veto power
3). reduce senatorial role in juries
b. succeed in enraging the optimates
c. succeed in doing favors for their soldier-clients
B. Pompey's extraordinary campaigns
1. Pompey's plans for self-aggrandizement
2. Senate's helplessness in foreign wars
3. Populares get 2 extraordinary campaigns for Pompey
C. annus mirabilis (consulship of Cicero and C. Antony)
1. Catilinarian conspiracy
a. L. Sergius Catilina: impoverished noble
b. plot discovered by Cicero in November
c. Cicero saves the state
2. Caesar elected -pontifex- -maximus-
a. Bona Dea scandal
b. "Caesar's wife must be above scandal"
3. Pompey hammering Mithradates and others in Asia, big time
a. making a big name for himself
b. needing to make arrangements for his soldier-clients
D. optimates on loose
1. showdown between Pompey and Senate
a. Pompey wants his actions authorized
b. Senate won't have it
2. Crassus put in his place
a. attempted to intercede for tax farmers
b. stopped by Cato of Vtica
VI. First Triumvirate (60 BC)
A. reasons for joining/not joining
1. Caesar
a. wanted the honor of being consul for 59 BC
b. wanted to win gloria in a province after war
2. Crassus
a. tended to use his wealth to pull strings
b. dignitas was insulted by Pompey's ascendancy
c. wanted importance commensurate with his wealth
3. Pompey
a. had been shut out by the -optimates-
b. dignitas was insulted
c. wanted to maintain his position
d. wanted goodies for his soldier-clients
4. Cicero
a. slighted by optimates
b. would have been good front man
c. put his faith in strength of the Republic
B. objectives of First Triumvirate
1. extraordinary commands for triumvirs
2. have sympathetic magistrates elected
3. have sympathetic legislation passed
C. First Triumvirate NOT A LEGALLY ORGANIZED CORPORATION
1. informal arrangement between three individuals
2. base of power
a. Caesar's imperium
b. Pompey's clientela
c. Crassus' wealth
d. organized mobs
D. consulship of Julius and Caesar (59 BC)
1. Bibulus and Caesar elected consuls
a. Caesar does whatever the hell he wants
b. Bibulus tries to cancel the whole year by seeing omens
2. Caesar buffaloes the government
a. Bibulus gets driven into his house
b. Threats of dire legal punishment against Caesar.... whenever
E. Caesar in Gaul
1. wins gloria against Gauls, Germans, Swiss
a. "civilizes" France
b. invades Britain 55-54 BC
c. promotes himself by writing -de- -bello- -gallico-
2. becomes a more effective warlord
a. client-soldiers love him
b. all Gaul in Roman hands by 51 BC
F. Things fall apart: prologue to Civil War
1. breakup of First Triumvirate
a. large-scale mob violence in Rome
b. death of Crassus in Syria 53 BC
c. Pompey won over by optimates
2. Senate tries to reassert its rights
a. Cato and others decide to confront Caesar
b. Pompey appointed dictator
c. Caesar recalled from Gaul
d. Caesar's dignitas was at stake
VII. Civil War (49-45 BC)
A. Provoked by breakup of First Triumvirate
1. Caesar crosses the Rubicon 49 BC
2. odds highly unfavorable
a. senatorial camp superior in money, troops, power
b. Caesar had surprise and a good hairstyle
3. occupies Italy immediately
4. battle of Pharsalus 48
a. Pompey defeated
b. Caesar left with mop-up operations
B. Caesar's dictatorship
1. marked by clemency
a. no proscriptions
b. forgiveness of Pompeians such as Brutus
2. gives himself unprecedented powers and honors
a. dictatorships
b. extraordinary commands
c. rigs the Senate and magistracies
1). increases Senate to 900 members
2). picks the consuls for three years in advance
3. insufficent respect for Republican institutions
a. attempted to maintain the facade
1). elections held every year
2). all assemblies meet regularly
3). did Julius really want to be a king?
b. historic hatred of kings and uppity magistrates
1). Tarquinius Superbus
2). Gracchi were misunderstood benefactors
c. in effect a rex
1). power base of 175-200,000 veterans
2). popular with urban mob
3). terrifying to the old Republicans
4). rumors that Caesar wanted to be -rex-
4. assassinated 15 March 44 BC
C. The Republic's Last Stand
1. tyrranicides blow it
a. did not seize Rome after the event
b. assumed everyone would congratulate them
2. rise of M. Antonius
a. trusted lieutenant of Caesar
b. popular with Caesar's veterans
c. seizes Caesar's treasury
3. Cn. Octavius
a. wifty 18 yr. old adopted son of Caesar
b. takes name C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus
4. Cicero's fight for the Republic
a. attempts to play off Octavian against Antony
b. delivers the -Philippics-
5. Second Triumvirate formed 43 BC
a. Antony
b. Octavian
c. Lepidus
Return to Table of Contents
Return to LLT 326 Home Page